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from　active　life　as　those　elder　annalists　had　been　connected　with　it。　In　modern　times　the　relations

are　entirely　altered。　Our　culture　is　essentially　prehensive　and　immediately　changes　all　events

into　historical　representations。　Belonging　to　the　class　in　question；　we　have　vivid；　simple；　clear

narrations　—　especially　of　military　transactions　—　which　might　fairly　take　their　place　with　those　of

Caesar。　In　richness　of　matter　and　fullness　of　detail　as　regards　strategic　appliances；　and　attendant

circumstances；　they　are　even　more　instructive。　The　French　〃Memoires〃　also　fall　under　this

category。　In　many　cases　these　are　written　by　men　of　mark；　though　relating　to　affairs　of　little　note。

They　not　unfrequently　contain　a　large　proportion　of　anecdotal　matter；　so　that　the　ground　they

occupy　is　narrow　and　trivial。　Yet　they　are　often　veritable　masterpieces　in　history；　as　those　of

Cardinal　Retz；　which　in　fact　trench　on　a　larger　historical　field。　In　Germany　such　masters　are　rare。

Frederick　the　Great　（Histoire　de　mon　temps）　is　an　illustrious　exception。　Writers　of　this　order

must　occupy　an　elevated　position。　Only　from　such　a　position　is　it　possible　to　take　an　extensive

view　of　affairs　—　to　see　everything。　This　is　out　of　the　question　for　him；　who　from　below　merely

gets　a　glimpse　of　the　great　world　through　a　miserable　cranny。

II。　Reflective　History

1。　Universal　History　…　2。　Pragmatical　History　…　3。　Critical　History

§　5

The　second　kind　of　history　we　may　call　the　reflective。　It　is　history　whose　mode　of　representation

is　not　really　confined　by　the　limits　of　the　time　to　which　it　relates；　but　whose　spirit　transcends　the

present。　In　this　second　order　strongly　marked　variety　of　species　may　be　distinguished。

1。　Universal　History

§　6

It　is　the　aim　of　the　investigator　to　gain　a　view　of　the　entire　history　of　a　people　or　a　country；　or　of

the　world；　in　short；　what　we　call　Universal　History。　In　this　case　the　working　up　of　the　historical

material　is　the　main　point。　The　workman　approaches　his　task　with　his　own　spirit；　a　spirit　distinct

from　that　of　the　element　he　is　to　manipulate。　Here　a　very　important　consideration　will　be　the

principles　to　which　the　author　refers；　the　bearing　and　motives　of　the　actions　and　events　which　he

describes；　and　those　which　determine　the　form　of　his　narrative。　Among　us　Germans　this　reflective

treatment　and　the　display　of　ingenuity　which　it　occasions；　assume　a　manifold　variety　of　phases。

Every　writer　of　history　proposes　to　himself　an　original　method。　The　English　and　French　confess　to

general　principles　of　historical　position。　Their　standpoint　is　more　that　of　cosmopolitan　or　of

national　culture。　Among　us　each　labours　to　invent　a　purely　individual　point　of　view。　Instead　of

writing　history；　we　are　always　beating　our　brains　to　discover　how　history　ought　to　b